Evolution of Civil Services: Impact of the Indian Civil Service Act 1861 Onwards

The Indian Civil Services Act of 1861 had a significant impact on the structure and functioning of the civil services in colonial India. It favoured the recruitment of British individuals into the ICS and maintained British authority over the governance of India. This act was part of the broader colonial apparatus that governed India during the British Raj. Later demands and successive legislations and commissions shaped the structure of civil services in India.

Indian Civil Services Act of 1861

The Indian Civil Services Act of 1861 was a crucial piece of legislation during British colonial rule in India. This act had several significant provisions and impacts:

• Establishment of Indian Civil Services: The Act formally established the Indian Civil Services, a prestigious administrative service that played a key role in governing British India. 
  • Members of the ICS were recruited through a competitive examination held in England and was conducted in the English language, with an emphasis on classical learning in Greek and Latin.
• Detailed recruitment process for the ICS: The Act detailed the recruitment process for the ICS. It prescribed that the competitive examination for ICS would be held in London. 
  • This aspect of the Act created challenges for Indian candidates, including the need to travel to England for the examination.
• Age Criteria for ICS Candidates: The Act also specified the maximum age limit for ICS candidates. The maximum allowable age for candidates was progressively lowered, starting from 23 in 1859, down to 22 in 1860, further reduced to 21 in 1866, and eventually to 19 in 1878. 
  • This age limit created additional barriers for Indian aspirants. 
  • However, in 1863, a historic milestone was achieved when Satyendra Nath Tagore became the first Indian to successfully qualify for the Indian Civil Service.
• Training and service obligations to ICS recruits: The Act outlined the training and service obligations for ICS recruits. Successful candidates underwent training before being assigned to various administrative roles in India.
• Provisions for Civil Services: Covenant Civil Services were higher administrative services in which recruitments were to be made in Britain. Lower executive services were called Provincial Civil Service.
• Reinforcement of British Control: The Act reinforced British control over the civil services and the governance of India, as it continued to limit Indian participation and representation in the administration.

Statutory Civil Service 

During 1878-79, Lord Lytton introduced the Statutory Civil Service, which allocated one-sixth of covenant positions to be filled by Indians from prominent families. These appointments were made through nominations by local governments, with the condition that they would require approval from both the Secretary of State and the Viceroy. However, this system proved unsuccessful and was eventually abolished.

Congress Demand and Aitchison Committee 

After the establishment of the Indian National Congress in 1885, it advocated for two key reforms in the civil services:

• Lowering the age limit for recruitment.
• Conducting the civil service examination simultaneously in both India and Britain.

In response to these demands, the Aitchison Committee on Public Services was formed in 1886, at the behest of Lord Dufferin. This committee recommended several changes:

• Abolishing the distinctions of ‘covenanted’ and ‘uncovenanted’ servants.
• Reorganizing the civil service into three categories: 
  • Imperial Indian Civil Service (with examinations in England) 
  • Provincial Civil Service (with examinations in India)
  • Subordinate Civil Service (with examinations in India)
• Increasing the age limit for candidates to 23.

In 1893, the House of Commons in England passed a resolution in support of conducting simultaneous civil service examinations in India and England. However, this resolution was never put into practice.

Lord Kimberley, the Secretary of State, emphasized the importance of maintaining a sufficient number of European members in the civil service, stating, “It is indispensable that an adequate number of members of the civil service shall always be Europeans.”

Montford Reforms (1919) 

The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms, also known as the Mont-ford Reforms, introduced several significant recommendations:

Key Recommendations

• Responsible Government: They adopted a pragmatic approach, acknowledging that for the establishment of a responsible government in India, it was essential to involve more Indians in public service. 
• Simultaneous Examinations: The reforms recommended conducting simultaneous civil service examinations in both India and England
• Quota of Recruitment: It was suggested that one-third of civil service recruitments should be carried out in India itself. 
  • This quota was intended to be increased annually by 1.5 percent, progressively incorporating more Indian individuals into the public service system.

Lee Commission (1924) 

The Lee Commission put forth several recommendations including:

• Responsibility of Secretary of State: The Secretary of State should maintain responsibility for recruiting individuals into services such as the Indian Civil Service (ICS), the Irrigation branch of the Service of Engineers, the Indian Forest Service, and similar roles.
• Prerogative of provincial governments: Recruitment for transferred fields like education and the civil medical service should be the prerogative of provincial governments.
• Direct Recruitment: A policy of direct recruitment to the Indian Civil Service (ICS) should be adopted, to achieve a 50:50 balance between Europeans and Indians within 15 years.
• Public Service Commission: The immediate establishment of a Public Service Commission, in line with the provisions set out in the Government of India Act, of 1919, was recommended.

Government of India Act, 1935

Key Highlight of Act: Within their respective purviews, the 1935 Act suggested the creation of a Federal Public Service Commission and a Provincial Public Service Commission. 

• Limitations of Indianization: However, because Indian bureaucrats served as colonial rule’s agents, positions of authority and control remained in British hands, and the process of Indianization of the civil service did not give Indians actual political power.

Evaluation of Civil Services under British Rule

Indians were systematically excluded not only from law and policy-making bodies but also from the institutions responsible for executing these policies. European dominance was firmly established in the civil service, mirroring the broader governance structures. This exclusion was achieved primarily through two methods.

Methods of Exclusion of Indians from Civil Services 

Language Barriers and Age Restrictions: While Indians had started entering the prestigious Indian Civil Services (ICS) in 1863, gaining entry into these services remained exceedingly challenging. 

• The entrance examination for the ICS was conducted in London and conducted exclusively in English, with subjects that included classical Greek and Latin studies. 
• Furthermore, the maximum age for taking the examination was reduced from twenty-three in 1859 to nineteen in 1878 during Lord Lytton’s time.

• Slow Indianization of Civil Services: Europeans held significant positions of power, authority, and well-paid roles. 
  • Even though a slow process of Indianization began after 1918 due to nationalist pressure, important and senior positions continued to be occupied by Europeans. 
  • Over time, however, Indians began to realize that the Indianization of the civil service had not transferred effective power into Indian hands. 
    • Indian members of the civil service continued to serve the imperialist interests of their British masters.

Conclusion

The evolution of civil services in colonial India was a complex process marked by a history of discrimination and exclusion of Indian aspirants. From Lord Cornwallis’s initiation of the Europeanization of higher services to the restrictive measures such as age limits and language barriers, the British colonial administration effectively limited Indian participation in the civil services. Despite the occasional reforms, the predominantly British control over these services persisted for a significant part of the colonial period. However, over time, there were efforts to address these disparities, especially with the Montford or Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms, which acknowledged the importance of involving more Indians in the administration. These reforms, alongside Indian nationalist movements and demands, contributed to changes in recruitment and participation policies, though significant progress took time.

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