The British rule in India, despite its detrimental impact, introduced India to Western civilization, science, and political thought. The spread of English education after the 1857 revolt played a key role in shaping a new middle class that became a driving force in India’s literary, artistic, and cultural movements. These movements blended Western and Indian ideas, influencing the nation’s path to independence.
Literary, Artistic, and Cultural Movements in Modern India: Shaping Identity and National Consciousness
British Rule and the Emergence of the New Middle Class in Modern India
- British Influence on Indian Society and Culture: British rule and the English language became a medium for India’s contact with Western civilization, including advances in science, technology, and political thought.
- Post-Revolt Education Reforms: The Macaulay scheme of education was revitalized after the revolt of 1857, leading to the establishment of universities in 1857 (Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras), which disseminated Western knowledge.
- Rise of a New Educated Middle Class: A new middle class emerged, especially in the three Presidency towns, with a common foundation of Western knowledge, ideas, and values, forming the soul of modern India.
- Role of the New Middle Class in National Movement: This educated middle class, inspired by Western political ideas, played a key role in the formation of the Indian National Congress and the leadership of the national movement.
Percival Spears sums up the developments with the remarks: “The new middle class was a well-integrated all-India class with varied backgrounds but a common foreground of knowledge, ideas and values. It was a minority of Indian society, but a dynamic meritocratic society. Over time, the spirit of this new middle class permeated all of India, emerging as modern India’s soul. The Indian National Congress was inspired to form an all-India political organisation by this middle-class English-educated individual, who also gave the Congress leadership during all of its expansion phases and even after Indian independence”.
Role of the New Middle Class in Literary, Artistic, and Cultural Movement
- Western Political and Philosophical Influence: The new middle class was conversant with Western concepts of political nationalism as well as the liberal-radical thought of writers such as Milton, Shelley, Benthem, Rousseau, Voltaire, and even Karl Marx.
- English as the Lingua Franca: The English language became the lingua franca of the English-educated classes in India.
- Knowledge of the English language had an additional advantage because it could provide employment in Government services as well as opportunities in the professions of lawyers, doctors, teachers, engineers, etc.
- Patriotism and Nationalist Literature: It laid emphasis on patriotism and the ardent hope for India’s Freedom.
- Writers in all Indian languages composed songs condemning British exploitation of India’s resources and wrote in praise of Indian history, culture, and heritage.
Literature in Different Indian Languages
Bengali literature
- Western Influence on Bengali Literature: Bengali literature was clearly influenced by Western ideas and literature.
- Indo-English Poetry by Aru Dutt and Toru Dutt: Two young Bengali women, Aru Dutt and Toru, composed English-language poems in Indo-English poetry, despite the poems’ Indian subject matter.
- Toru’s compilation of Old Ballad Legends confirmed her ability to express herself poetically in English.
- Translations of the Ramayana and Mahabharata: Ramayana and Mahabharata translations were published in English by Romesh Chandra Dutt, a Congress leader and former president of the Indian National Congress (session held at Lucknow in December 1899).
- Economic History of India: Dutt’s publication, Economic History of India in English, two Volumes, was well-received.
- Rebirth of Bengali Intellectual Thought: The nineteenth century also saw a rebirth of Bengali intellect.
- When thoughtful Bengalis examined the nation’s history, they discovered that many outdated customs and beliefs needed to be abandoned because they were no longer useful.
- Reevaluating Outdated Customs and Beliefs: Simultaneously, they found that numerous facets of India’s cultural legacy held inherent significance for humanity as a whole, as well as for Indians.
- Intellectuals started amalgamating Western and Eastern ideas.
- Some Notable Scholars: Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1774-1833), Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (1820-1891), Madhu-sudan Datta (1824-1873), Bankim Chandra (1838-1894), Sarat Chandra Chatterji (1876-1938), Rabindra Nath Tagore (1861-1941) and Aurobindo Ghose (1872-1950).
Hindi Literature
- During the 19th century, Hindi literature also made notable progress. Instead of Braja Bhasha and Avadhi Hindi, Khadi Boli Hindi became the popular medium of expression.
- Some Notable Scholars: Bharatendu Harish Chandra (Dramatist, poet, and essayist, 1846-1884). Prem Chand (novelist and short-story writer (1880-1936), Surya Kant Tripathi Nirla (poet), Jaya Shankar Prasad (poet, dramatist), and Ramchandra Shukla (critic), Sumitra Nandan Pant, Mahadevi Verma, Ram Kumar Verma, etc.
- In Bhojpuri, Manoranjan’s fortnight poem caught the imagination of even the common man. His poem Firangiya became very popular.
Urdu Literature
- Development of Urdu Poetry and Literature: Modern ages also saw the development of Urdu poetry and literature.
- Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan’s Influence on Urdu Literature: Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan, who established the Mohammedan Educational Congress in 1886 and later changed its name to the Anglo-Oriental Educational Conference in 1890, was a significant influence in pushing Urdu writers to reframe their works in a contemporary manner.
- Some Notable Scholars: Asadullah Khan Ghalib (1806-1869), Altaf Hussain Panipati popularly known as Hah (1837-1914), Akbar Allahabadi (1846-1921), Brij Narain Chakbast (1882-1926), Pandit Ratan Nath Sarshar and Mohammad Iqbal (1873-1938)
Tamil Literature
- Among the Tamil writers, the names Kuppuswami Mudaliyar (novelist), R. Krishnamurti (short-story writer), Chakravarti Rajagopalacharya (essayist short-story writer), and, above all, Subramanya Bharati (1882-1946) are the most important writers.
Telugu Literature
- Emergence of Political and Economic Themes: In the latter part of the 19th century, modern political and economic themes began to permeate Telugu literature, which had for centuries been primarily focused on religious themes.
- Trendsetter in Modern Telugu Literature: Rao Bahadur Viresh Lingam Pentulu (1848-1919), a poet, dramatist, novelist, and critic) became the trendsetter of modern Telugu literature.
- Notable Writers: Other outstanding writers were Nanduri Venkata Subbarao, M.O. Rama Rao etc.
Marathi Literature
- Themes in Marathi Literature: Marathi literature’s themes in the 19th and 20th centuries were nationalism, liberalism, and romanticism.
- Some Notable Scholar: Some literary figures in the 19th and 20th centuries were M.G. Ranade (1842-1907), K. J. Telang (1850-93), V. S. Chiplankar (1850-82), R.K. Gopal Bhandarkar (1834-1925) VS. Khandekar (novelist), GT Madkholkar (poet and novelist) and H. D. Salgarkar (poet), etc.
Punjabi Literature
- Rise of Singh Sabha Writers: Late in the 19th century, a group of writers associated with Singh Sabha rose to prominence.
- The topic of their conversation was socio-religious issues.
- Notable Literary Figures: Some literary figures were Bhai Vir Singh (poet), Rana Surat Singh (poet), Puran Singh (poet, essayist), Amrita Pritam (poetess, novelist, and short-story writer), Kartar Singh Duggal (novelist and short-story writer), etc.
Thus, the changes and developments of modern times were amply reflected in the literature of all Indian languages. Indian literary works combine elements of Eastern and Western cultures and values in their subject matter and style.
Major Art and Architecture
Early European colonists in India introduced European architectural styles, especially when building churches and fortifications. The administrators of the British East India Company had very little dislike for Indian arts, architecture, religion, or way of life during their time in India.
- Racial Superiority Complex: After the revolt of 1857, the British ruling class in India developed a racial superiority complex towards Indians.
- Indians were considered sub-human creatures, half gorilla, half Negro who could be kept in check by superior force only.
- Neo-British Imperialism and Justification: The neo-British imperialism was justified by the slogan of ‘Whitman’s Burden’ and the ‘Civilizing Mission‘ of England in India.
- European Academics’ Contribution: However, historical studies of ancient Indian history carried out by European academics such as Max Muller, Monier Williams, Roth, and others opened up new perspectives on India’s rich cultural legacy.
- Research on Mediaeval Indian Art and Architecture: Also, The research in Mediaeval Indian art, architecture (monuments like Qutab Minar and Taj Mahal), music, and painting revealed a rich legacy.
- New Style of Indian Art and Architecture: With time, a new style of Indian art and architecture that combined the best elements of the East and the West began to emerge.
- Indo-British Influence in Churches and Cathedrals: The Victorian architectural style, known for its Indo-British influence, became popular in the field of architecture.
- It brought changes to the design of churches, and examples of this style can be seen in churches in Kolkata, and Chennai, as well as cathedrals in Lahore and Simla.
- Traditional Rajput Style with Modern Needs: The Museum building in Jaipur combines the traditional Rajput style with modern needs, creating a unique blend.
- Moving into the early 20th century, architect.
- Architectural Planning of New Delhi: The architectural plan for New Delhi was created by Sir Edward Lutyens and Sir Edward Baker.
- The structural designs of important government buildings and even residential structures for government employees all fit together seamlessly, creating a harmonious and cohesive overall look.
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Conclusion
The literary, artistic, and cultural movements in colonial India were pivotal in shaping India’s national identity and resistance against British rule.
- These movements fostered unity and sparked social and political change through the blending of traditional and modern ideas.
- Their legacy continues to inspire India today, highlighting the enduring role of culture in shaping a nation’s future.
