Tribal Movements in Mainland India Before 1857

The British East India Company’s expansion in the Indian subcontinent disrupted the lives of many indigenous communities, including the tribal populations inhabiting the mainland. The colonial policies significantly altered their traditional socio-economic systems, encroaching on their lands, and challenging their autonomy and way of life. This resulted in numerous uprisings across the country, with tribal communities resisting both the British authorities and the exploitative practices of outsiders.

The tribal revolts of mainland India were characterized by their intense resistance, deep-rooted grievances, and the collective desire to reclaim lost autonomy. Below, we explore the key tribal movements before 1857.

Tribal Movements Before 1857

The Paharia Revolts (1770s and 1780s)

The Paharias were hill-dwelling tribes around the Rajmahal hills, relying on forest resources and shifting cultivation. They viewed the entire region as their land and resisted external intrusion.

• Subsistence and Conflicts: Faced with food scarcity, Paharias often raided plains villages to assert control.
  • Plains zamindars paid tributes to maintain peace, while traders bribed hill chiefs for safe passage.
• Impact of Colonial Policies: British-led forest clearances reduced forest and pastureland, causing more frequent Paharia raids.
  • In response, the British launched brutal attacks in the 1770s. A major rebellion, led by Raja Jagganath, occurred in 1778.
• Pacification Attempts: In the 1780s, the British offered annual allowances to Paharia chiefs to ensure compliance. Many, however, resisted, retreating deeper into the mountains to avoid the “dikus” (outsiders).

Tilka Manjhi Revolt (1771–1785)

Led by Tilka Manjhi, this revolt took place in the Santhal Parganas, marking an early indigenous uprising against British exploitation.

• Causes: Harassment by revenue collectors and landlords, coupled with the severe famine of 1770, drove the Santhal Parganas into discontent.
  • Tilka resisted British policies and attacked East India Company boats, sharing the loot with the poor.
• Rebellion and Resistance: In 1778, Tilka joined forces with Paharia Sardars and captured the Ramgarh Camp.
  • He launched guerrilla attacks, killing Augustus Cleveland, the British magistrate of Rajmahal.
• Suppression: The British eventually captured Tilka Manjhi, who was hanged in 1785. His resistance became a symbol of tribal defiance.

The Chuar Uprisings (1767–1799)

Known as the Jungle Mahal Rebellion, this revolt involved the Chuar tribes of the Chotanagpur plateau and surrounding regions, including Birbhum, Bankura, and Midnapore.

• Causes: The British imposed high land revenue, leading to discontent among the Chuar zamindars and the tribal population.
  • The Permanent Settlement and new police regulations displaced tribal paiks (village guards), forcing them into rebellion.
• Key Phases: 1768: Led by Jagannath Singh, the Chuar rebellion forced temporary British retreat.
  • 1798–1799: Durjan Singh led the most significant uprising, but British forces brutally suppressed it.
• Impact: The Chuar revolts symbolized the tribes’ resistance to external intrusion into their lands and livelihoods.

The Tamar Uprising (1798)

The Tamar rebellion in Chotanagpur was led by Bholanath Sahay, with support from the Munda tribes.

• Causes: The imposition of unfamiliar British systems provoked collective anger among the tribes.
  • Tribals viewed the British as “dikus” who exploited their lands and resources.
• Suppression: The rebellion was quelled by Lt. Cooper’s forces, but Tamar continued to witness sporadic uprisings in subsequent years.

The Kol Rebellion (1831)

The Kol rebellion took place in the Chotanagpur region under the leadership of Buddho Bhagat.

• Causes: Large-scale land transfers from Kols to Hindu, Sikh, and Muslim farmers led to their exploitation.
  • British judicial and revenue policies disrupted their traditional social conditions.
• Rebellion: Kols killed or burned nearly a thousand outsiders in 1831, targeting oppressive landlords and moneylenders.
• British Response: The rebellion required large-scale military operations to restore order, highlighting the intensity of Kol grievances.

The Ho Tribal Uprisings (1820–1837)

The Ho tribals of Singhbhum revolted against British intrusion and exploitation.

• Causes: The imposition of farming revenue policies and the influx of outsiders fueled resentment.
  • Loss of autonomy and disruption of traditional systems triggered multiple uprisings.
• Key Phases: The first phase (1820–1827) ended with the Ho surrender.
  • In 1831, the Mundas joined the Hos in a renewed rebellion, which persisted until 1837.

Santhal Rebellion of 1855-56

• Background of the Santhals

• • • Migration to Rajmahal: During the late 1770s and early 1780s, the Santhals migrated to the Rajmahal area from regions like Cuttack, Dhalbhum, Manbhum, Hazaribagh, and Midnapore.
      • They shifted from a nomadic lifestyle to settled agriculture, aligning with British economic interests.
    • Conflict with the Paharias: A long-standing feud existed between the Santhals and the Paharias. The conflict symbolized a battle between:
      • The hoe (Paharias), representing shifting cultivation.
      • The plough (Santhals), representing settled agriculture.
• Key Demands
• Formation of Damin-i-Koh (1832-33)
• • • Purpose: Established to resolve disputes between the Santhals and Paharias.
    • Implementation: The British allocated land in the Damin-i-Koh area (foothills of Rajmahal) to the Santhals for settled agriculture.
      • The Paharias were displaced to the higher hill tracts.

Loss of Santhal Land and Heavy Taxation

• Gradual Loss of Land: Over time, the Santhals faced land alienation as their cultivated lands were seized.
• Impact of Permanent Settlement Act (1793): Imposed heavy taxes on their lands, leading to indebtedness.
  • Moneylenders charged exorbitant interest rates, forcing the Santhals into economic distress.
  • Zamindars took over Damin tracts, displacing the Santhals.
• Course of the Rebellion
  • The Hul Movement: The rebellion was referred to as ‘hul’, meaning a movement for liberation.
  • Leadership: Led by Sidhu and Kanhu Murmu, who declared autonomy between Bhagalpur and Rajmahal.
    • Claimed divine guidance from Thakur (God) to take up arms for independence.
  • Secret Communication: The rebels used sal branches as a form of secret communication.
• Suppression of the Rebellion
  • Brutally suppressed the rebellion in 1856 using tactics such as:
    • Burning villages.
  • Deploying elephants to crush resistance.
  • Thousands of Santhals were killed, including Sidhu and Kanhu.
  • Aftermath of the Rebellion

• Formation of Santhal Paraganas: Territories called ‘Santhal Paraganas’ were created, carved out of the districts of Bhagalpur and Birbhum.
• Special Laws: Implemented laws making it illegal for Santhals to transfer land to non-Santhals.
• Legacy: The rebellion highlighted the Santhals’ determination to protect their land and culture against colonial oppression.

Koya and Khonda Sara Rebellions

The Koya tribes of the Godavari region revolted several times during 1803–1862, often under the leadership of Khonda Sara chiefs.

• Causes: Oppression by police and moneylenders, denial of forest rights, and the imposition of new regulations.
  • Exploitation of natural resources by outsiders.
• Key Leaders: In 1879–1880, Tomma Sora led a rebellion.
  • Raja Anantayyar organized another revolt in 1886, emphasizing tribal unity against oppression.

Bhil Revolts (1817–1819)

The Bhils, inhabitants of the Western Ghats, revolted against British policies.

• Causes: Economic distress, famine, and misgovernance drove the Bhils to rebellion.
  • The dismantling of traditional systems of administration and resource control worsened their plight.
• Rebellion: The Bhils resisted British occupation of mountain passes and disrupted colonial trade routes.

Koli Uprisings (1829–1848)

The Kolis, neighboring the Bhils, revolted multiple times.

• Causes: Loss of employment opportunities due to Company rule and the demolition of their forts.
  • The introduction of British administrative practices that disadvantaged the Kolis.
• Key Phases: Major uprisings occurred in 1829, 1839, and 1844–1848, reflecting sustained resistance.

Conclusion

The tribal revolts in mainland India before 1857 highlight the widespread discontent among indigenous communities over the loss of autonomy, land alienation, and exploitation by colonial authorities and outsiders. These revolts, though often suppressed, were significant expressions of resistance against colonialism. They not only preserved tribal identity but also inspired later movements, contributing to India’s broader fight for freedom. The resilience of tribal leaders like Tilka Manjhi, Buddho Bhagat, and Bholanath Sahay remains a testament to the enduring spirit of indigenous resistance.

DOWNLOAD PDF