The Revolt of 1857: Origins and the State of India

The East India Company’s history was marked by continuous conquest and economic exploitation. English greed seemed boundless, and their expansionist policies, economic exploitation, and administrative changes had a detrimental impact on various groups in Indian society, including rulers of states, soldiers (sepoys), landowners (zamindars), peasants, traders, scholars (pundits), and religious leaders (maulvis). The only exception was the educated Westernised class in urban areas, who owed their status to the Company’s government. The discontent of the various sections eventually erupted in the form of the major 1857 Revolt, which profoundly challenged British rule in India. The Lucknow Proclamation highlighted that British rule had put at risk four cherished aspects for both Hindus and Muslims religion, honour, life, and property.

The Start and Escalation of the Uprising

The Immediate Cause

The reports of bone dust being mixed in flour (atta) and the introduction of the latter further fueled the sepoys’ growing disillusionment with the government. 

• Controversial Rifle Cartridge Design: The cartridge of the new rifle had wrapping paper that needed to be bitten off before loading, and it was said to be greased with a mixture of beef and pig fat. 
• Religious Sensitivities Ignored by the Army: For Hindus, the cow was considered sacred, while for Muslims, the pig was considered impure. The Army administration took no action to address these concerns, deepening the sepoys’ fears for their religious beliefs. 
• Greased Cartridges- A Catalyst for Unrest: The issue of the greased cartridges did not introduce a new source of discontent in the Army, but it provided the catalyst for the underlying unrest to surface openly.

Unfurling of the Revolt from Meerut

On May 10, 1857, the uprising started in Meerut, 58 km from Delhi. As it quickly grew in strength, it soon engulfed a sizable region that stretched from the Narmada in the south to Punjab in the north to Rajputana in the west, and Bihar in the east. 

• Before the Meerut incident, there were signs of discontent in various military encampments. In February 1857, the 19th Native Infantry in Berhampur refused to use the newly introduced Enfield rifle and mutinied, leading to their disbandment in March 1857. 
• A young sepoy named Mangal Pande of the 34th Native Infantry went even further, firing at the sergeant major of his unit at Barrackpore. 
  • Execution and Disbandment: He was captured and executed on April 8, while his regiment was disbanded in May. 
    • The 7th Awadh Regiment, which defied its officers on May 3, faced a similar fate. Then came the critical incident at Meerut. 
• On April 24, ninety men of the 3rd Native Cavalry refused to accept the greased cartridges. 
• On May 9, eighty-five of them were dismissed, sentenced to 10 years’ imprisonment, and put in fetters. This triggered a widespread mutiny among the Indian soldiers stationed in Meerut.
• The very next day, on May 10, they freed their incarcerated comrades, killed their officers, and raised the banner of revolt. After nightfall, they set off for Delhi.

Bahadur Shah: Chosen as Symbolic Leader for Political Legitimacy

In Delhi, the local infantry units joined the uprising, killing their European officers, including Simon Fraser, the political agent, and taking control of the city. Lieutenant Willoughby, who was in charge of the magazine at Delhi, put up some resistance but was eventually defeated. The aged and powerless Bahadur Shah Zafar was declared the Emperor of India. Delhi swiftly became the focal point of the Great Revolt, with Bahadur Shah serving as its symbolic leader. 

• Symbol of Political Unity: This spontaneous elevation of the last Mughal king to a position of leadership acknowledged that the Mughal dynasty had come to represent India’s long-standing political unity.
• Mutiny Transformed into Revolutionary War: This act by the sepoys transformed a mere military mutiny into a revolutionary war. 
  • Indian chiefs who participated in the revolt quickly declared their allegiance to the Mughal emperor, emphasizing that the rebels were motivated by political considerations. 
• Formation of a United Front Against British Rule: While religion played a role, the rebels’ broader perspective was shaped by their perception of the British as a common adversary.
  • Bahadur Shah’s Call for Unity: After some initial uncertainty, Bahadur Shah corresponded with chiefs and rulers across India, urging them to form a confederacy of Indian states to challenge and replace British rule. 
  • Widespread Rebellion: The entire Bengal Army soon joined the revolt, which rapidly spread to Awadh, Rohilkhand, the Doab, Bundelkhand, central India, and substantial portions of Bihar and East Punjab, shaking off British authority.

Ordinary citizens join the Revolt

• Widespread Civilian Participation in the Sepoy Revolt: The sepoy revolt was not limited to the military; it saw a simultaneous uprising of the civilian population, particularly in the north-western provinces and Awadh.
  • Diverse Participation: This uprising was fueled by long-standing grievances, prompting a mass movement against British rule. 
    • What distinguished this revolt was its broad participation, involving peasants, artisans, shopkeepers, day labourers, zamindars, religious figures, priests, and civil servants. 
  • This widespread involvement gave the revolt substantial strength and characterized it as a popular uprising.

• Peasant and Landowner Grievances Against Money-lenders and Zamindars: Peasants and small landowners took this opportunity to express their frustrations by targeting money-lenders and zamindars who had displaced them from their land. 
  • They also utilized the revolt to destroy the financial records of moneylenders and erase debt records. 
    • Additionally, they launched attacks on British-established law courts, revenue offices (tehsils), revenue records, and police stations.

• Heavy Civilian Casualties and the Spread of the Revolt: In Awadh alone, it’s estimated that out of the roughly 150,000 individuals who lost their lives in the conflict against the English, over 100,000 were civilians.
  • Within just a month of Delhi’s capture by the rebels, the revolt had spread to various parts of the country.

Conclusion

The uprising of 1857 was a complex and significant opposition to British domination in India, triggered by long-standing resentments and religious tensions. At first, sparked by dissatisfaction among the military towards the greased cartridges, the rebellion quickly expanded to include a wide range of societal factions, from soldiers to peasants. The revolt turning into a rebellion led by Bahadur Shah Zafar represented a united defiance against British tyranny, paving the way for upcoming fights for Indian freedom.

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