The Rowlatt Act and the Rise of Mass Satyagraha in India

The government, while presenting the allure of constitutional reforms, concurrently equipped itself with extraordinary powers to quell dissent against these changes. The Rowlatt Act, officially termed the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act but commonly known as the Rowlatt Act, was introduced just six months before the implementation of the Montford Reforms. The commission proposed deporting or imprisoning activists without trial for two years and considered possession of seditious newspapers as sufficient evidence of guilt.

The Rowlatt Act 

Rowlatt Commission and its Recommendations: Two bills were presented in the Imperial Legislative Council, and while one was discarded, the other, an extension to the Defence of India Regulations Act 1915, was passed in March 1919. The Act originated from recommendations by the Rowlatt Commission(committee), headed by British judge Sir Sidney Rowlatt, tasked with investigating the alleged ‘seditious conspiracy’ of the Indian people. 

• The commission proposed deporting or imprisoning activists without trial for two years and considered possession of seditious newspapers as sufficient evidence of guilt.
• Opposition by Indian Members: Despite unanimous opposition from all elected Indian members of the Imperial Legislative Council, including figures like Mohammed Ali Jinnah, Madan Mohan Malaviya, and Mazhar Ul Haq, the bill was adopted. In protest, the elected Indian members resigned from their positions.
• Atrocious Nature of the Act: The Rowlatt Act allowed the trial of political activists without juries or imprisonment without trial, permitting the arrest of Indians on suspicion of ‘treason’ without a warrant. 
  • Erosion of Legal Rights: Suspects could be tried in secret without legal assistance, with a special cell of three high court judges holding sole jurisdiction, devoid of any court of appeal. 
    • This panel could accept evidence not admissible under the Indian Evidences Act, and the law of habeas corpus, the foundation of civil liberty, was suspended.
• Wartime Restrictions Made Permanent: The government’s objective was to replace the wartime Defence of India Act (1915) with a permanent law. Consequently, wartime restrictions on freedom of speech and assembly were reinstated in India, with stringent control over the press and an array of powers vested in the government to address perceived terrorism or revolutionary tactics.

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Vision of Indian Independence during the 1920s

The Indian independence movement, a struggle against British colonial rule, witnessed significant changes in its vision and objectives since the 1920s. These new objectives expanded the scope of the movement, emphasizing the need for a modern, secular, and inclusive nation that would address various social, economic, and political issues.

The new objectives that shaped the vision of Indian Independence during the 1920s include

• Social and Economic Justice: Aiming to address issues like poverty, inequality, and discrimination, this objective sought to create a more equitable society by providing equal opportunities and rights for all citizens. 
• Communal Harmony: Recognizing the need for unity among diverse religious and ethnic communities, the importance of promoting communal harmony became central to the independence movement.  
• Women’s Empowerment: The vision for Indian Independence expanded to include women’s rights and gender equality, with women participating in various capacities and challenging traditional gender roles. 
• Secularism: Emphasizing secularism as a fundamental principle, the vision aimed to ensure that India would be an inclusive and pluralistic nation, accommodating its diverse religious and cultural traditions. 
• Democratic Governance: The vision evolved to include the establishment of a democratic system of governance, allowing citizens to participate in the decision-making process and fostering accountability and transparency. 
• Self-Reliance and Economic Independence: This objective aimed to break free from the colonial economic system and develop a self-sufficient economy, reducing dependence on foreign resources. 
• Social Reform: Prominent social reform movements emerged like the Self Respect Movement started by Periyar in 1925 that advocated for equal rights and status for Dravidians. 
  • Gandhi’s initiatives like the Vaikom Satyagraha in 1924 for temple entry for untouchables and Bardoli Satyagraha in 1928 for peasant welfare uplifted marginalized sections.

The new objectives that emerged since the 1920s significantly enriched the vision of Indian Independence, providing a more comprehensive and inclusive approach to the struggle for freedom. These objectives helped create a foundation for the modern Indian state, which emphasizes democracy, secularism, and social justice. 

Satyagraha against the Rowlatt Act—First Mass Strike

Betrayal of Indian Expectations: As the Indians anticipated significant progress towards self-rule in recognition of their wartime contributions, they were instead presented with the Montford Reforms, characterized by limited scope, and the severely repressive Rowlatt Act. 

• Disillusionment and Condemnation of the Rowlatt Act: This unexpected turn left the Indians feeling betrayed, particularly Gandhi, who had actively supported the British war effort, even facilitating the recruitment of Indians into the British Indian forces. He denounced the Rowlatt Act as the “Black Act,” contending that punishment should not be indiscriminate in response to isolated political crimes.
• Mobilizing National Political Networks: In response, Gandhi called for a mass protest at the all-India level.  In organizing his satyagraha, Gandhiji tried to utilize three types of political networks: The Home Rule Leagues; Certain Pan-Islamist groups, and Satyagraha Sabha. 
• • Nationwide Protest: The chosen forms of protest included a nationwide hartal (strike) accompanied by fasting and prayer, civil disobedience against specific laws, and willingly courting arrest and imprisonment.

The situation underwent a radical transformation at this point:

• From Words to Action: The masses found a direction, transitioning from verbal expression to proactive engagement in addressing their grievances.
  • Peasants, artisans, and the urban poor assumed an increasingly significant role in the struggle.
• Masses at the Forefront: The orientation of the national movement permanently shifted towards the masses. Gandhi emphasized that true salvation would come when the masses were awakened and actively involved in politics.
• Course of the Satyagraha: Scheduled for launch on April 6, 1919, Satyagraha faced a prelude of large-scale violent, anti-British demonstrations in major cities like Calcutta, Bombay, Delhi, and Ahmedabad. The unfolding movement deviated significantly from the anticipated or planned course. 
• • Hartal in Delhi Sparks Initial Violence: Delhi witnessed the hartal on March 30 due to some confusion about dates, leading to considerable violence in the streets. 
  • Widespread Unrest and Disorder: This pattern seemed to replicate in most other areas responding to the call, with protests often accompanied by violence and disorder. 
  • Intensified Turmoil in Punjab: Punjab, grappling with the aftermath of severe wartime repression, forced recruitment, and the impact of disease reacted particularly vehemently. In both Amritsar and Lahore, the situation became highly precarious for the Government.
  • Gandhiji’s Efforts to Pacify: Gandhiji attempted to travel to Punjab to help calm the people, but the Government intervened by deporting him to Bombay. 
• Upon his arrival, he discovered that Bombay and even his native Gujarat, including Ahmedabad, were in turmoil. Faced with this unrest, he chose to stay and endeavor to pacify the agitated populace.

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• The extent of Repression: April 1919 witnessed the most significant and violent anti-British upsurge since 1857, with reports suggesting the use of aircraft strafing by the Lieutenant Governor of Punjab, Sir Michael O’Dwyer, against the protestors.

Conclusion

The harsh measures of the Rowlatt Act, along with the brutality of the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, vividly demonstrated British oppression in India. The action eroded basic legal rights and increased disenchantment among Indians, leading to widespread unrest. In reaction, Gandhi’s Satyagraha organized large-scale opposition, signifying a crucial change in India’s fight for independence. The 1920s idea of independence in India highlighted social justice, secularism, and democracy, standing in opposition to British control and influencing India’s core principles.

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