Evolution of Socio-Cultural Reform Movements Among Indian Muslims (18th-19th Century)

In the early 18th century, various socio-cultural reform movements emerged among Indian Muslims as responses to internal decline and external pressures. This period witnessed significant transformations led by influential figures like Shah Walliullah, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, and others, who sought to address both religious and social challenges. These reform movements—ranging from revivalist to modernist—played crucial roles in shaping the Muslim community’s trajectory amidst changing political and cultural landscapes.

Wahabi/Walliullah Movement

The Wahabi Movement, also known as the Walliullah Movement, emerged as an early organized Muslim response to Western influences in India. It was essentially a revivalist movement led by Shah Walliullah (1702-62), who expressed deep concern over the decline that had occurred among Indian Muslims. He lamented the deviations from the core tenets of Islam.

• Harmony Among Jurisprudential Schools: Shah Walliullah made two significant contributions to the Muslim reform movement. 
  • Firstly, he advocated for the creation of harmony among the four schools of Muslim jurisprudence that had divided Indian Muslims. 
  • He aimed to integrate the best elements from these schools. 
• Individual Conscience in Religious Interpretation: Secondly, he underscored the importance of individual conscience in matters of religion. 
  • He argued that in cases where interpretations of the Quran and Hadith (teachings and practices of the Prophet) might conflict, individuals could make decisions based on their judgment and conscience.
• Political Dimension of Walliullah’s Teachings: Shah Abdul Aziz and Syed Ahmed Barelvi further popularised Walliullah’s teachings, imbuing them with a political dimension. They aspired to establish a homeland for Muslims. 
  • This effort began with a Fatwa issued by Abdul Aziz, declaring India to be dar-ul-Harb (land of non-believers), and advocating the need to transform it into dar-ul-Islam (land of Islam). 
• Shift in Focus and Suppression: Initially, their campaign was directed against the Sikh community in the Punjab. After the British annexed Punjab in 1849, the movement shifted its focus towards opposing British rule. 
  • However, it was eventually suppressed by the superior military force of the British in the 1870s.

Aligarh Movement and Syed Ahmad Khan

Following the Revolt of 1857, there was a prevailing belief that Muslims were the main instigators of the uprising. This perception was further reinforced by the political activities of the Wahhabi movement in the 1860s and 1870s. However, by the 1870s, there was a noticeable shift in this sentiment.

• W.W. Hunter’s book, “The Indian Musalman,” strongly advocated for the reconciliation and rallying of Muslims around the British government, emphasizing the need for thoughtful concessions. 
  • A segment of the Muslim community, led by Syed Ahmed Khan, was inclined to accept this approach of official patronage. 
• Impact of Isolationism on Muslim Representation: They believed that if Muslims isolated themselves and resisted modern ideas, they would forfeit their rightful share in administrative services. 
  • This marked a turning point in the relationship between the Muslim community and the British authorities.
• Sir Syed Ahmed Khan (1817-1898): was a prominent Muslim reformer of the 19th century. Born in Delhi to a respected Muslim family, he received a traditional Islamic education. 
  • He served in the judicial service of the British East India Company during the Rebellion of 1857 and remained loyal to the government. 
  • After retiring in 1876, he became a member of the Imperial Legislative Council in 1878, and his loyalty was rewarded with a knighthood in 1888.

• Vision for Modernization and Integration: Sir Syed endeavored to modernize the perspectives of Muslims, advocating for their acceptance of modern scientific thought and British rule. 
  • He encouraged them to seek opportunities within the government, achieving considerable success in this endeavor.
• Social Reform in the Muslim Community: He aimed to address social issues within the Muslim community. He criticized practices like “piri and muridi,” where spiritual leaders claimed to pass mystic knowledge to their disciples. 
  • He also condemned the institution of slavery, considering it incompatible with Islamic principles. 
  • He promoted these progressive social ideas through his publication “Tahdhib-ul-Akhlaq” (Improvement of Manners and Morals).
• Reinterpreting the Quran: In his influential work “Commentaries on the Quran,” Sir Syed challenged the narrow interpretations of traditional scholars. 
  • He provided his insights, aligning them with contemporary rationalism and scientific knowledge. 
  • He emphasized the importance of studying the Quran and believed that God’s word should be interpreted in light of the natural world accessible to all. 
• Educational Vision and Legacy: In the realm of education, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan established the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College (M.A.O. College) in Aligarh in 1875. 
  • This institution provided instruction in both Western arts and sciences, as well as teachings in the Muslim religion. 
  • Over time, Aligarh emerged as a pivotal hub for the religious and cultural renaissance of the Muslim community. 
  • Eventually, the college served as the foundation for the establishment of the Aligarh Muslim University in 1920.

Deoband Movement (Darul Uloom)

The Deoband Movement was initiated by the orthodox Muslim scholars, known as ulema, with the dual purpose of promoting the pure teachings of the Koran and the Hadis among Muslims, and sustaining the spirit of jihad against foreign rulers. It was founded in 1866 in Deoband, Uttar Pradesh, under the leadership of Muhammad Qasim Nanotavi and Rashid Ahmad Gangohi, the movement established a school to train religious leaders for the Muslim community. 

• Curriculum and Ideological Focus: The curriculum focused exclusively on Islamic studies, rejecting English education and Western influences. 
  • The emphasis was on the moral and spiritual rejuvenation of the Muslim community. 
• Educational Objectives: Unlike the Aligarh Movement, which advocated for the welfare of Muslims through Western education and support for the British government, the Deoband school did not prepare its students for government positions or secular careers, but rather for the propagation of Islamic faith. 
• National and International Recognition: The Deoband school gained recognition for its religious instruction and drew students not only from various parts of India but also from neighbouring Muslim-majority countries.
• Political Stance and Controversies: The Deoband School initially welcomed the establishment of the Indian National Congress in 1885. 
  • However, in 1888, the ulema of Deoband issued a religious decree (fatwa) against the organizations founded by Syed Ahmed Khan, namely the “United Patriotic Association” and “The Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental Association.” Some critics argue that the support of the Deoband ulema for political causes did not arise from a distinct political philosophy or opposition to the British government, but rather from their determination to oppose the activities of Sir Syed Ahmed Khan.
• Political and Intellectual Integration: Under the leadership of Mahmud-ul-Hasan (1851-1920), the Deoband School sought to infuse political and intellectual substance into its religious principles. 
  • Hasan worked to synthesize Islamic ideals with national aspirations, striving to find a balance between the two. 
  • The Jamiat-ul-Ulema, an organization formed by Hasan, gave practical form to his ideas, aiming to safeguard the religious and political rights of Muslims within the broader context of Indian unity and national goals.

Ahmadiyya Movement

Founding and Principles: The Ahmadiyya Movement, founded by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad in 1889 in India, espoused liberal principles and positioned itself as a champion of the Islamic Renaissance. 

• It drew parallels with the Brahmo Samaj in its advocacy for a universal religion for all of humanity, rejecting the concept of jihad against non-Muslims. 
• The movement worked to promote Western-style liberal education among Indian Muslims. 

• Beliefs and Challenges: Unique among Islamic sects, the Ahmadiyya community believed that Mirza Ghulam Ahmad was the prophesied Messiah, sent to bring an end to religious conflicts and promote peace, morality, and justice. 
  • They advocated for the separation of mosque and state while championing human rights and tolerance. However, like the Baha’i faith in West Asia, the Ahmadiyya Movement faced challenges associated with mysticism.

Faraizi Movement

Foundation and Ideological Goals: The Faraizi Movement, founded by Haji Shariatullah in 1818 in East Bengal, aimed to eliminate un-Islamic practices among local Muslims and emphasize the pillars of the Islamic faith. 

• Transformation and Organization: Under Haji’s son, Dudu Mian, the movement turned revolutionary around 1840. 
  • Dudu Mian established an organized hierarchical structure from the village to the provincial level, appointing authorized deputies at each level. 
• Militant Activities and Decline of the Movement: They formed a paramilitary force armed with clubs to combat predominantly Hindu zamindars, alongside some Muslim landlords and indigo planters. 
  • Dudu Mian urged followers not to pay rent and even set up their courts. Dudu Mian’s repeated arrests, culminating in 1847, weakened the movement. 

After Dudu Mian died in 1862, the movement persisted as a religious movement devoid of political aspirations.

Titu Mir’s Movement

Mir Nithar Ali, known as Titu Mir, was a follower of Sayyid Ahmed Barelvi, the founder of the Wahabi Movement. Titu Mir embraced Wahabism and promoted the implementation of Sharia law. He rallied Muslim peasants in Bengal against the primarily Hindu landlords and the British indigo planters. While British records portrayed the movement as highly militant, it was only in the final year of Titu’s life that a confrontation with British police occurred. Tragically, Titu Mir lost his life in action in 1831.

Conclusion

The early 18th to late 19th century saw a dynamic evolution of socio-cultural reform movements among Indian Muslims, each responding uniquely to the era’s internal and external challenges. Figures like Shah Walliullah, Syed Ahmed Khan, and Mirza Ghulam Ahmad spearheaded diverse approaches, from revivalism to modernization. These movements, ranging from the Deoband and Aligarh to the Ahmadiyya and Faraizi, collectively contributed to the profound transformation of the Muslim community amidst shifting political and cultural landscapes.

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