The Rise of Southern India’s Regional Powers: Marathas, Hyderabad, Mysore and Kerala

During Aurangzeb’s rule, regional factions like the Jats, Sikhs, and Marathas rose in defiance. Seeking to establish their kingdoms, they challenged the Mughal power. While their endeavours didn’t fully succeed, they shaped the political trajectory in their areas. Their sustained opposition substantially weakened the Mughal dominion. After Aurangzeb, Bahadur Shah I’s attempts to curtail the Rajputs incited them to fight against the Mughals. Subsequent Mughal rulers tried to mend ties with the Rajputs, but mistrust had already set in, preventing alliances beneficial for the empire.

Rise of Hyderabad

Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah, the founder of Hyderabad state (1724-1748), was one of the most powerful members of the court of the Mughal Emperor Farrukhsiyar. He was entrusted first with the governorship of Awadh, and later given charge of the Deccan. 

• Viceroy of Deccon: As the Mughal governor of the Deccan provinces, during 1720-22 Asaf Jah had already gained control over its political and financial administration. 
  • Battle of Shakr-Kheda (1724): Taking subsequent advantage of the turmoil in the Deccan and competition amongst the court nobility, he gathered power in his hands and became the actual ruler of that region in 1724 after defeating Mubariz Khan in the Battle of Shakr-Kheda (1724). 
    • The emperor, recognizing his inability to counteract, acknowledged the Nizam as the Deccan’s viceroy in 1725, granting him the Asafjah title.
• Able Administrator: Asaf Jah brought skilled soldiers and administrators from northern India who welcomed the new opportunities in the south. He appointed mansabadars and granted jagirs. 
  • Although he was still a servant of the Mughal emperor, he ruled quite independently without seeking any direction from Delhi or facing any interference. 
  • Mughal emperor merely confirmed the decisions already taken by the Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah.

• Challenges: In the Deccan, the Nizam faced challenges from the Marathas. As a tactful strategist, he proposed to the Peshwa the idea of Maratha expansion into Northern India, which Baji Rao I embraced. 
  • Although portraying himself as the Mughal empire’s protector, the Nizam was defeated by Baji Rao I in 1737 and later accompanied the emperor against Nadir Shah. 
  • Nadir Shah, before departing Delhi, advised caution against the crafty Nizam. Following Nadir Shah’s onslaught, the Nizam strengthened his base in the Deccan.

• Asaf Jah’s Death and Decline of Hyderabad: Following Nizam-ul-Mulk’s death, Hyderabad faced a series of crises, including conflicts with the Marathas, Mysore, and the Carnatic. 
  • A war of succession unfolded between his son Nasir Jung and grandson Muzaffar Jung, and the French, under Dupleix, seized the opportunity. Muzaffar Jung eventually emerged victorious, forming alliances and making territorial concessions to the French.
• Reign of Nizam Ali Khan: The situation improved after 1762 during the reign of Nizam Ali Khan, who took control of the administration. He settled border disputes with neighboring powers, bringing much-needed political stability to Hyderabad. 
  • The administrative system incorporated semi-autonomous rulers and the influential local elite in a patron-client relationship with the central power.

Endowed with the attributes befitting the founder of an independent realm, the Nizam was both a skilled diplomat and a compassionate monarch. He fostered peace, advanced agriculture, and endeared himself to his subjects in the Deccan. Sidney Owen described the Nizam as a shrewd politician who, upon seeing the Mughal Empire’s impending collapse, strategically distanced himself to save his legacy.

Rise of Marathas 

The Marathas, primarily Marathi-speaking peasant clans in Western India, emerged as soldiers in the armies of the Deccan Sultanates of Bijapur and Ahmednagar during the 16th century. They initially served these sultanates, but their ascent to power was closely associated with the fertile region of Maharashtra, which excelled in cotton cultivation, spinning, and textile production. Maharashtra’s textile products were sought after in trade centers like Surat.

• Maratha Administration: The Maratha dominion was characterized by a unique power structure, divided into two key areas: Regulation and Non-regulation areas. 
  • In the Regulation areas, there was a system of revenue assessment, management, and accountancy, divided among vatandars. Deshmukhs, who controlled groups of villages, were prominent in rural governance. Each village had a Patil as a headman, usually from the peasant caste, and a Kulkarni, typically a Brahmin, as a record keeper. These local leaders played critical roles in the administration, with Deshmukhs recognized as powerful figures.
• Revenue Model: The Maratha state’s nature was distinctive. Instead of pursuing absolute sovereignty over specific territories, they aimed to claim revenue. They imposed Chauth, 25% of produce, and Sardeshmukhi, an additional 10% of the Mughal Government’s share of revenue, in exchange for not plundering. 
• The Maratha Confederacy: The Marathas operated as a confederacy, with dominant families such as Gaekwad of Baroda, Bhonsle of Nagpur, Holkars of Indore, and Scindias of Gwalior. However, mutual hostilities among these families at times hindered their collective power.
• Culture and Architecture: The Marathas left a lasting architectural legacy, characterized by multi-story wooden structures known as Wadas, designed for both defense and comfort. They also constructed forts, particularly hill forts, which played a critical role in expanding and preserving the Maratha empire. 
  • Temples also witnessed architectural innovation, symbolizing the rise of the Hindu community.
• Challenges: The Marathas faced significant challenges, including their inability to maintain a centralized administration in newly conquered regions and their internal factionalism. The Third Battle of Panipat marked a turning point, as the Marathas suffered a devastating defeat at the hands of Ahmad Shah Abdali. This battle initiated a decline in Maratha’s power.

Key Figures in Maratha History

• Shambhuji: The son and successor of Shivaji, Shambhuji continued his father’s defiance of Aurangzeb, sheltering rebel prince Akbar. His challenge to Aurangzeb’s authority ultimately led to his death.
• Shahu: Shahu was instrumental in securing Maratha’s interests and recognition from the Mughals. His release from captivity by Bahadur Shah paved the way for Maratha’s consolidation.
• Balaji Vishwanath: Appointed as Peshwa (Prime Minister) by Shahu, Balaji Vishwanath played a crucial role in establishing Maratha control over Mughal provinces. His diplomatic negotiations and support from Brahmin banking facilities were key to Maratha’s ascendancy.
• Baji Rao-I: Often regarded as one of the most charismatic and dynamic leaders in Maratha history after Shivaji, Baji Rao expanded Maratha’s power significantly, conquering regions as far north as Agra.

The Era of Baji Rao I:

Martial Prowess and Strategy:

• Recognized for excellence in multiple roles: soldier, diplomat, statesman, and empire-builder.
• Constantly in action throughout his twenty-year Peshwaship, fighting and winning battles.
• Renowned in Maharashtra as the combat-focused Peshwa and symbol of Hindu vigour.
• Avoided direct confrontations due to Maratha’s artillery shortcomings; instead, he disrupted enemies’ food supplies, exemplified in Palkhed and Bhopal against the Nizam.
• The Maratha army was known for speed and agility; his 1737 Delhi raid demonstrated remarkable swiftness.
• Expert general and tactician, evident in his campaigns and especially his strategic victories over Nizam.
• Exceptional talent spotter, identifying future war leaders such as the Sindhias, Holkars, Pawars, and others.
• Valued trust in his subordinates, fostering motivation and productivity.
• Recognized the importance of allying with Rajputs, Bundelas, Jats, and other Hindu communities against the Mughals. This led to beneficial relationships with figures like Sawai Jai Singh.

Empire Building:

• He was pivotal in the creation of a more expansive Maharashtra. Under his leadership, Marathas expanded across India from the Arabian Sea to the Bay of Bengal, turning Poona (Pune) into the political epicenter instead of Delhi.

Critiques and Praise:

• Dr V.G Dighe critiqued Baji Rao for not reforming political institutions for long-term benefits, pointing out the resurgence of feudal tendencies post-Shivaji.
• On the contrary, Sir J.N. Sarkar lauded Baji Rao for establishing the prime ministerial role in the Maratha Raj, akin to Sir Robert Walpole’s contribution in England.
• Fissiparous tendencies in Maratha politics post-Baji Rao were attributed more to his successors and the era’s political climate.

Rise of Mysore

In the 18th century, Mysore emerged as a significant state. Situated at the intersection of the Eastern and Western Ghats, it was governed by the Wodeyars. 

• The strategic importance of this region attracted many powers, making it a regular battleground. 
• Ultimately, Haider Ali took control of Mysore, although his reign was marked by frequent conflicts. He, and later his son Tipu Sultan, constantly battled with the British.

Rise of Kerala

Martanda Varma founded the independent state of Kerala, designating Travancore as its center. He expanded its borders from Kanyakumari to Cochin. Additionally, he undertook initiatives to reform his military along the West.

Conclusion

The rise of regional powers like the Jats, Sikhs, Marathas, and Hyderabad significantly weakened the Mughal Empire’s grip, reshaping the Indian subcontinent’s political landscape. Leaders like Asaf Jah and Baji Rao I strategically expanded their influence, while Mysore and Kerala also emerged as formidable states. These developments marked the decline of centralized Mughal authority and the emergence of new regional dynamics that would shape India’s future.

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