Tribal Movements During British Rule in India: Rebellion, Resistance and Resilience

During British rule in India, tribal uprisings were characterized by violence, militancy, and frequency. They can be classified into two main categories: frontier tribal revolts in northeastern India and mainland tribal revolts. Uprisings on the mainland were triggered by changes in tribal lands and forests, the cessation of joint ownership customs, and exploitation by outsiders. These movements sought to address issues related to altered tribal territories and ownership dynamics. In contrast, the northeastern tribes demanded outright independence or political autonomy within the Indian Union. These movements, initially focused on socio-religious problems and oppression under tribal leaders, eventually merged with the national movement, leading to sustained and distinctive uprisings.

Various Aspects of Tribal Uprisings 

Colonial Disruptions: Colonialism significantly altered the relationship between tribal communities and forests.

• impact of Colonial Policies on Indigenous Agricultural Practices: Traditionally relying on shifting cultivation for sustenance, tribes faced disruption as colonial authorities seized forest lands, restricted access to resources, and prevented cultivation in new areas.
• Oppression and Forced Labor: Oppression, extortion, and forced labor intensified the suffering of tribal communities. These disruptions, common factors in uprisings, affected large populations and contributed to the emergence of militant movements against colonial rule.
• Tribal Identity and Resistance: Tribal rebellions during the 19th century were characterized by ethnic ties
• •  Rebels identified strongly with their tribal identity, viewing themselves not as a distinct class but as part of a tribal community. Fellow tribals were spared unless collaborated with the enemy.
• Selective Violence: Non-tribal poor, often engaged in supportive economic roles or having social relations with tribes, were spared from violence.
  •  Certain outsiders were considered allies, with the rural poor sometimes joining rebellious tribal bands. The uprisings typically began as spontaneous attacks on outsiders, leading to armed resistance against colonial authorities.

Mainland and Frontier Tribal Revolts and Causes

Features of Tribal Revolts

Driving force of the movements: Tribal identity and ethnic bonds were the driving force behind the unity of these groups. 

• Targeted Violence: The violence was not indiscriminate; those who were considered socially and economically supportive of the village, especially the poor relying on manual labour, were spared. 
• The targets were primarily moneylenders and traders seen as agents of the colonial government.
• Resistance to Foreign Rule: The resentment stemmed from the imposition of laws by the foreign government, which was perceived as an attempt to dismantle the traditional socio-economic system of the tribals.
• Charismatic Leadership: Many of these uprisings were led by charismatic leaders who inspired their people to rebel, offering the promise of liberation from the hardships caused by the outsiders.
• Inequality of Arms: Despite their determination, tribal uprisings were disadvantaged from the outset due to their reliance on outdated weaponry, pitted against the modern arms and tactics employed by their adversaries.

Major Tribal Revolts

Pahariyas’ Rebellion

• The martial Pahariyas of the Raj Mahal Hills rebelled against British expansion in 1778. 
• The uprising compelled the British to establish peace by designating the territory as a Damni-kol area. 
  • This designation signified a compromise or concession made by the British to maintain order in the region.

Chuar Uprising

• Reasons: The Chuar aboriginal tribes of Jungle Mahal in Midnapore and Bankura districts rebelled due to famine, increased land revenue demands, and economic distress. 
• Leaders and the Course of Uprising: Their uprising occurred in two phases, from 1766 to 1772, and then again between 1795 and 1816. 
  • Early Chuar Resistance and British Concessions: The Chuars, primarily farmers and hunters, held their lands under a feudal tenure. 
    • In 1768, led by Jagannath Singh, the zamindar of Ghatsila, they rebelled and forced the British government to concede. 
  • Suppression of 1771: In 1771, leaders like Shyam Ganjan, Subla Singh, and Dubraj led another rebellion, but this time they were suppressed. 
  • 1798 Revolt of the Jungle Mahal: The significant uprising of 1798, led by Durjan Singh, a dispossessed zamindar of Raipur, involved 1,500 Chuars. 
    • They resorted to violence to halt the auction of the Raipur estate but were brutally suppressed by the British. 
    • Other Chuar leaders included Madhab Singh, Raja Mohan Singh, and Lachman Singh. This event is sometimes referred to as the Revolt of the Jungle Mahal.

Kol Mutiny (1831)

• Leaders and Location: In 1831, the Kols under the leadership of Buddho Bhagat along with other tribes residing in Chhotanagpur, which encompassed areas like Ranchi, Singhbhum, Hazaribagh, Palamau, and parts of Manbhum, Rose in rebellion.
• Reason:  The uprising was triggered by extensive land transfers from Kol headmen to outsiders such as Hindu, Sikh, and Muslim farmers and money-lenders who imposed heavy taxes and engaged in oppressive practices. 
  • Additionally, British policies in judiciary and revenue adversely impacted the traditional social fabric of the Kols, leading to resentment. 
• Course: Under the leadership of Buddho Bhagat, the Kol rebels targeted and either killed or set fire to approximately a thousand outsiders. 
  • It took extensive military operations to restore order in the region.

Ho and Munda Uprisings (1820-1837)

Ho Tribe:

• Leader and Location: In the early 19th century, the Raja of Parahat rallied the Ho tribals in a revolt against the occupation of Singhbhum, which is now part of Jharkhand. 
• Phases: This uprising persisted until 1827 when the Ho tribals were eventually subdued. However, in 1831, they once again initiated a rebellion, joined by the Mundas of Chotanagpur, to protest against the newly implemented farming revenue policy and the influx of Bengalis into their region. 
  • Despite the revolt being quelled in 1832, the Ho operations continued until 1837. 

Mundas: 

• Leader and Location: The Mundas, too, did not remain silent for long. In 1899-1900, the Mundas in the region south of Ranchi, led by Birsa Munda, rose in rebellion. 
  • Known as the Ulgulan, it emerged as one of the most notable tribal uprisings between 1860 and 1920. 
• Course: Starting as a religious movement, it gained political momentum to combat the introduction of feudal, zamindari tenures, and to counter exploitation by money lenders and forest contractors. 
  • The Mundas laid claim to Chhotanagpur as their rightful territory in 1879, leading to the deployment of British armed forces. 
  • Birsa was eventually captured and imprisoned.

The Santhal Rebellion (1855-56)

• • Introduction of Permanent Settlement (1793): After the Battle of Plassey (1757), the East India Company implemented revenue policies and law and order rules.
    •  In 1793, Lord Cornwallis introduced the Permanent Settlement in regions like Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, leading to the auctioning of Santhal lands if peasants couldn’t pay rent.
  • Impact on Santhals’ Land Control: The auctioning of Santhal lands resulted in the loss of their land control and the collapse of traditional political structures. 
    • Despite initial promises of non-interference, British demands for higher rents forced the Santhals into a position where revolt seemed the only solution.
  • Economic Struggles and Barter System: The Santhals adhered to the barter system, making it challenging to pay cash to Zamindars. 
    • This forced them into debt with moneylenders at high interest rates, creating a vicious cycle that trapped them economically and compelled them to rebel to protect their identity.
• Rebellion as a Solution: To break free from economic oppression and protect their identity, the Santhals saw rebellion against British policies as their only solution.
• Leaders and Guerrilla Warfare: The Santhal revolt, known as the Hul revolt, began on June 30, 1855, led by figures like Sidhu, Kanhu, Chand, Bhairav, Phulo, and Jhano. The Santhals, employing guerrilla warfare, successfully captured territories, mobilizing over 10,000 people.
• Suppression and Conclusion: The British government, using heavy weaponry against Santhals’ bows and arrows, suppressed the revolt in 1856.
•  Leaders Sidhu and Kanhu were apprehended, leading to a brutal end. Despite their defeat, the Santhal Rebellion was considered successful, prompting the British to acknowledge their shortcomings.
• Post-War Legislation: The enactment of the Santhal Parganas Tenancy Act post-rebellion provided tribes with protection against oppressive British rule, contributing to the cultivation of nationalist sentiments among the people.
• Preservation of Culture and Traditions:  The Act encouraged tribal communities to safeguard their culture and traditions from interference and destruction, leaving a lasting impact on the preservation of Santhal identity.

Khond Uprisings (1837-1856)

• Leader and Location: Between 1837 and 1856, the Khonds, residing in the hilly regions stretching from Odisha to the Srikakulam and Visakhapatnam districts of Andhra Pradesh, rebelled against the rule of the East India Company. 
  • Led by the young Raja Chakra Bisnoi, the Khonds were joined by other tribal groups from Ghumsar, Kalahandi, and surrounding areas. 
• Reason: They opposed the Company’s efforts to suppress human sacrifice, imposed new taxes, and allowed the entry of zamindars into their territories. 
• Result: However, when Chakra Bisnoi disappeared, the uprising eventually came to an end. Another Khond rebellion occurred in 1914 in the Orissa region, driven by the hope of ending foreign rule and establishing an autonomous government.

Koya Revolts

• Leader and Location: The Koyas, along with Khonda Sara chiefs, staged multiple uprisings in the eastern Godavari region (modern Andhra Pradesh) during the years 1803, 1840, 1845, 1858, 1861, and 1862. 
  • This pattern of rebellion resurfaced once again in 1879-80, led by Tomma Sora. 
• Reason: The grievances of the Koyas included oppressive practices by the police and moneylenders, the introduction of new regulations, and the denial of their traditional rights over forested areas. 
  • After Tomma Sora’s passing, Raja Anantayyar organized another rebellion in 1886.

Bhil Revolts

• Location: The Bhils residing in the Western Ghats region held control over the mountain passes linking the north and the Deccan. 
• Reason: They initiated a revolt against the British East India Company from 1817 to 1819 due to factors like famine, economic hardship, and perceived mismanagement. 
• British Response: In response, the British employed a combination of coercive measures and conciliatory strategies to quell the uprising. 
• Second Phase: Nevertheless, the Bhils rose in rebellion once more in 1825, 1831, and 1846.  
  • Subsequently, a reformist leader named Govind Guru emerged, supporting the Bhils in south Rajasthan (Banswara, Sunth states) in their efforts to organize and fight for a Bhil Raj, ultimately culminating in 1913.

Koli Risings

• The Kolis, who resided in proximity to the Bhils, launched rebellions against the rule of the British East India Company in 1829, 1839, and once more from 1844 to 1848. 
• Reason: They opposed the imposition of Company rule, which resulted in widespread unemployment and the dismantling of their forts.

North-East Tribal Movements (Frontier Movements) 

Khasi Uprising

• Cause: A large number of outsiders including Englishmen, Bengalis, and labourers from the plains were brought to the hilly region between Garo and Jaintia Hills because the East India Company wanted to build a road linking the Brahmaputra Valley with Sylhet. 
• Leader and Course: The Khasis, Garos, Khamptis, and Singphos organized themselves under Tirath Singh to drive away the strangers from the plains. 
  • The uprising developed into a popular revolt against British rule in the area. 
• Suppression: By 1833, the superior English military force had suppressed the revolt.

Singpho Rebellion

• Beginning: It began in Assam, in the early 1830s and was initially suppressed, but the Singphos continued to organize revolts. 
  • An uprising in 1839 resulted in the death of the British political agent. 
• Leader and Course: In 1843, Chief Nirang Phidu led another uprising that involved an attack on the British garrison and resulted in the loss of many soldiers’ lives. 
  • Additionally, there were smaller movements, such as the rebellion of the Mishmis in 1836, the Khampti rebellion in Assam between 1839 and 1842, and the Lushais’ revolt in 1842 and 1844, during which they attacked villages in Manipur.

Conclusion

The tribal uprisings under British rule in India were driven by a combination of cultural, economic, and political grievances. From frontier revolts demanding autonomy or independence to mainland movements protesting land and resource exploitation, these uprisings reflected a deep-seated resistance to colonial interference. Despite facing severe repression and military disadvantages, these tribes managed to highlight the oppressive nature of British policies, contributing significantly to India’s broader struggle for freedom and justice.

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