Expressions of Freedom: Art and Literature in Colonial India – (Part 02)

The literary, artistic, and cultural movements in modern India played a crucial role in shaping the nation’s identity during colonial times. These movements, fueled by a desire for self-expression and resistance to British rule, brought together elements of tradition and modernity. Writers, artists, and intellectuals worked to preserve indigenous culture while embracing global influences. The efforts of individuals like Rabindranath Tagore, Prem Chand, and Raja Ravi Varma marked a significant cultural renaissance in India.

Literary, Artistic, and Cultural Movements in Modern India: Shaping Identity and Resistance

Film Industry

• The Birth of Indian Cinema: Raja Harishchandra (1913): The first indigenous silent feature film Raja Harishchandra was produced by Dada Sahib Phalke in 1913 at Coronation Cinema, Bombay. 

• The Rise of Modern Indian Cinema in the 1920s: The film industry took its modern shape in the 1920s. 
• The Advent of Indian Talkies: Alam Ara (1931): The first Indian talkie was named Alam Ara and was produced by Ardesher in 1931.
• Popularity of Talkies in Bengal and South India: Bengal and South India saw a rise in the popularity of the Talkies film model. 
• First Talkies in Regional Languages: The first talkie in Bengali was Jamat Shasthi; the first in Telugu was Bhakta Prahlada; and the first in Tamil was Kalidas. 
• Expansion of Indian Cinema Across Multiple Languages: Numerous other Indian languages, including Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Gujarati, Oriya, Assamese, and Punjabi, were also used to produce the film adaptations of these talkies. 

Classification of Indian Films: Three Categories 

• Theme and Appeal: The most popular category of “social” films is known for their widespread appeal because they focus on contemporary or recent social issues. 
• Plot Elements: These films typically revolve around emotional separations and reunions, where the hero or heroine (or both) narrowly escapes a dire fate at the last moment. 
• Music and Dance: They often feature frequent song and dance sequences, which draw large audiences.
• Musical Style: In Indian film songs, the melodies maintain their Indian essence, and the singers often incorporate traditional vocal embellishments. 
• Western Influence: However, the accompanying orchestration reflects significant Western influence and can include various Western musical instruments. 
  • In recent times, Western popular music, with its lively rhythms, simple harmonic structures, and emphasis on catchy tunes, has had a significant impact on Indian film music.
• Some Popular Films: Bimal Roy produced many popular films like Do Biga Zamin, Devdas, and Madhumathi. 
• Similarly, Raj Kapoor of Bombay produced films named Boot Polish, Shri 420, and Jagte Raho. 
• V. Shantaram shot into fame with the production of Do Ankhen Barah Hath and Jhanak Jhanak Payal Baje film Director Mehbood produced Mother India.

Theatre Associations

• South India: Early Theatre Forms: The evolution of the system of popular theatre plays can be traced in the history of South India. 
  • These developments were Earlier forms of theatre that had various aspects like musical plays, ballets, and ragakavayas. 
  • With time modern forms of Kathakali and the modern Bharatanatyam took shape. 
• Street Plays: The system of Street plays developed in Andhra and Karnataka.
• Modern Drama in Northern India: In northern India, Calcutta witnessed the birth of modern drama. 
  • Russian Indologist Lebedev wrote and produced the first Bengali stage play in Calcutta in 1795.  
  • It was a rendition of Richard Paul Jodrell’s English comedy The Disguise, to  meet the needs of a diverse audience, the actors and actresses spoke a mix of Bengali and English. 
• Bengali Theatre Developments: The first play in Bengali written by Pandit Ramnarayan was named Kulin Kulasarvarana which was a social satire against the practice of polygamy among upper caste brahmins. 
  • Some others were Ratnavali by Ramnarayan, Madhusudan Dutt a renowned dramatist, and Nil Darpan by Dinbandhu Mitra.

• Other Prominent Playwrights: Other notable playwrights were Jyotirindranath, Manmohan Basu, Dwijendralal Roy, Grishchandra Ghosh, Rabindranath Tagore, etc.
• National School of Drama (NSD): The National School of Drama in Delhi was another landmark in the development of Theatre Organizations.
• Prithviraj Kapoor and Prithvi Theaters: Prithviraj Kapoor was an additional renowned dramatist. 
  • The first permanent staff-based professional Hindi theatre group was founded by him, Prithvi Theaters. 
  • Prithviraj thought that well-known plays could both improve Indian society and offer enjoyable entertainment. 
  • Shakuntala, Dewar (wall), Pathan, Ghaddar (traitor), Kalaakar (artist), Paisa (money), Kissan (farmer), and Ahuti (offering) were among his most well-liked plays.
• Other Key Theatre Groups: The Theatre Unit in Bombay, Anamika in Calcutta, Three Arts Club, Indraprastha Theatre, Little Theatre Group, and Delhi Arts Theatre were among the other theatre groups in India. 

• • The establishment of the National School of Drama in Delhi was another landmark in the development of Theatre organisation.
• Emerging Trends in Indian Theatre: A practical synthesis of traditional Indian and Western styles and techniques with regard to issues and problems facing humanity is the newest trend in the field of theatre organisation.

Writer’s Organizations

The emergence of numerous writer’s organisations in India during the 19th and 20th centuries was a positive consequence of the country’s widespread literacy and cultural activities. Some of these were

• Andhra Pradesh: Sahiti Samiti was formed with Srivasankra (popularly known as the Anna Guru) as its first President. 
• Many short-story writers, poets, and painters associated themselves with the organisation. 
• Later, they also started the publication of a journal called Sahiti.
• Maharashtra: Ravikiran Mandal (Sunday Club) was founded in 1923. 
• Poets and musicians patronised the Mandal. 
• Some associated poets were Girish, Yashwant, and Madhav Juabin.
• Orissa: The intellectuals of Orissa organised the Sabuja. 
• • Saratchandra Mukerji, Baikuntha Nath Pattanayaka, Kalindicharan Panigrahi and Harshandra Badala, Vishvanatha Kara (the editor of the journal Utkal Sahitya) were closely associated with the organisation.

Some Famous Literary Luminaries

Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941)

• Early Life and Family: Rabindranath Tagore, was born on 7 May 1861 in Calcutta, to Devendranath and Sarda Devi. His family was influential in the Indian Renaissance movement.

• Education and International Exposure: Tagore was well-travelled, visiting Europe and America multiple times, where he interacted with literary and political figures. 
  • He promoted the Swadeshi movement and believed in self-help and self-respect as its foundation.
• Vision for Education: Tagore advocated for a national system of education, emphasising the use of the mother tongue as the medium of instruction. 
  • He established Shanti Niketan, which later became the renowned Visva-Bharati University in 1918.
• Literary and Artistic Contributions: Tagore was a prolific writer, with over a thousand poems, two thousand songs, and various short stories, novels, and essays. 
  • In 1913, his collection of poems, “Gitanjali,” earned him the Nobel Prize in Literature. He also composed “Jana Gana Mana,” which later became India’s national anthem.
• Versatility as a Painter: Apart from his literary talents, Tagore was a skilled painter, creating around 3000 artworks. He received a Knighthood from the British monarch, George V, in 1915.
• Advocacy and Global Perspective: Tagore had a deep connection with Mahatma Gandhi and was a vocal critic of oppression worldwide. 
  • He expressed concerns about Britain’s intentions toward India’s struggle for independence, as noted in “Crisis in Civilisation.“
• A Vision for a United World: The real prophetic mission of Tagore was to usher in a period of peace. 
  • His goals were to bring together the prosaic and the poetic, morality and art, idealism and realism, and science and religion. 
  • His vision was a promise of a post-twentieth century world that harmonised East and West, symbolised in his restless yet hopeful poem.
• Symbol of Unity and Conflict Between East and West: Rabindranath Tagore’s name symbolises the unity and conflict between East and West, but it also offers hope for a harmonious future where diverse elements come together to create a more complete and peaceful world.

Prem Chandra

• Early Life and Education: Prem Chand, originally named Dhanpat Rai Srivastava, was born on July 31, 1880, in Lamati, near Varanasi. 
  • He emerged as a prolific Indian author, renowned for his novels and short stories in Hindi and Urdu who pioneered in adapting Indian themes to Western literary styles.

• Teaching and Non-Cooperation Movement: Prem Chand began his career as a teacher and continued in this profession until 1921 when he joined Mahatma Gandhi’s Non-Cooperation Movement as an active participant in India’s struggle for independence.
• Urdu Novels and Literary Contributions: Initially, he gained recognition for his Urdu-language novels and journals. 
  • Notably, the short story format was only widely accepted in Northern India once Prem Chand’s works emerged.
• Key Works and Social Commentary: One of his notable works, “Sevasadanam” (1918; House of Service), tackled issues such as prostitution and moral corruption within the Indian middle class. 
  • The themes of his work included various social issues- arranged marriages, the abuses of the British bureaucracy, caste oppression, the struggles of the middle class, and the exploitation of rural peasants by moneylenders and officials. 
• Manasarovar (The Holy Lake): This is an extensive collection of approximately 250 short stories. 
  • The stories draw upon a wide range of Northern Indian life, often conveying moral lessons or revealing psychological truths.
• Expanding the Social Imagination: Prem Chand expanded the social imagination of his time by narrating the lives of marginalised individuals. 
  • His narratives formed the basis for a moral order, allowing readers to empathise with the struggles and experiences of those on the periphery of society.

• Enduring Legacy in Indian Literature: Although he passed away at a relatively young age, Prem Chand’s literary and personal legacy continues to inspire and challenge the collective conscience of India. 
  • His work serves as a reminder of the power of literature to shape society and the enduring relevance of his stories in the face of evolving social realities.

Conclusion

The literary, artistic, and cultural movements in colonial India were not just forms of expression but powerful tools for resistance and social change. 

• They helped unite people by addressing social issues and challenging colonial oppression. Despite the challenges and contradictions, these movements contributed to India’s cultural resurgence. 
• Their legacy continues to inspire contemporary India, highlighting the enduring role of creativity in shaping the nation’s future.

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